ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE: A WEB WALK

*ASSESS YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE TO UNDERSTAND IT BETTER*

Follow along and CLICK ON COLORED WORDS below to reach fun and thoughtful QUIZZES & QUOTES and CLICK BROWSER BACK or RETURN ARROW BUTTONS AT BOTTOM OF PAGES TO RETURN FOR THE NEXT LINK...... Have a productive AND FUN exploration! Write down your answers if you wish to compare them with others, or how you answer next time you visit.

AS YOU BEGIN, what do you think about YOUR organizational culture in YOUR workplace?...... Can I identify it exactly? How is it unique? To help you get started on this, here are some key QUESTIONS to begin with. ENJOY!!

Well, now that I have some questions identified, how can I rate the answers to get a more precise idea of my organizational culture?
To help you zero in on your answers, here is one FRAMEWORK for looking at the questions more accurately. GO FOR IT!

We are analysing the culture around us, but what about our own? We can see who they are, but WHO ARE WE? Why don't you TRY THIS! to see if it will shed any light on the issues.

We now have some idea of our organizational culture and our own preferences and opinions. WHAT IS SOCIETY SAYING? YOU DECIDE IF IT IS RELEVANT OR NOT! Let's see what you think should be happening today. We have some points to ponder to get you started in your reflective practice thinking. Remember to set your alarm if you might be late for anything, and HAVE FUN!

Now let's take a look at the social context of YOUR work environment. What kinds of things are YOU hearing? What STORIES are in YOUR workplace?

Well, I think that you are starting to find that organizational culture can be made up of many components. For example, you might have found that your organization is following COMMON GOALS in daily operations, OR WAS IT NOT?

Our web walk has now become a jog! We now have one last lap through a KALEIDOSCOPE of materials before we reach the final bibliography below. THANK-YOU for joining us on a web journey! We hope that you have been enjoying your trip.

If the libraries you use do not have these ARTICLES IN OUR BIBLIOGRAPHY then you could order them from your library interlibrary loan/document delivery department.

This Organizational Culture Web Walk site was created by Valda Svede and Mariella Petriglia as one of the assignments for the computer conferencing Master's Level Course 1012, Organizational Culture and Decision-Making taught at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto by Dr. John Davis.

CLICK TO VIEW INFO RE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE TOWARD ONE POSSIBLE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE SHIFT: WELLNESS AND HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT.

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP: A PROFILE DOCUMENT

CLICK HEREto view SCHOOL LEADERSHIP: A PROFILE DOCUMENT. This was a masters course project created for an online Leadership course at OISE/UT.

©2004,1997 Valda Svede and Mariella Petriglia
Free Graphics courtesy of:Bellsnwhistles, Cooltext.com

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The profession of business ethics has long needed a highly practical resource that is designed particularly for leaders and managers -- those people charged to ensure ethical practices in their organizations. Unfortunately, far too many resources about business ethics end up being designed primarily for philosophers, academics and social critics. As a result, leaders and managers struggle to really be able to make use of the resources at all. Also, far too many resources about business ethics contain sensationalistic stories about businesses "gone bad" or prolonged preaching to businesses to "do the right thing". These resources often explore simplistic ethical questions, such as "Should Jane steal from the company?" The real world of leaders and managers is often much more complex than that.

This guide is a straightforward and highly practical tool designed to help leaders and managers implement comprehensive ethics management systems in their workplaces -- systems to deal with the complex, ethical issues that can occur in the day-to-day realities of leading and managing an organization.

For Web readers: This free guidebook is about 20 pages long (8 1/2" x 11" pages). If you are reading the document on the World Wide Web, please wait until the document is fully loaded before attempting to link to its sections listed below. The best approach to using this guidebook may be to print it out for ongoing reference. The Free Management Library provides additional information about ethics and a great range of other free information about management. For a complete list of library topics, see http://www.mapnp.org/library/topics.htm

Disclaimer: The author, Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, makes no warranty, express or implied, nor assumes any legal liability for accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information from this guide.

Another Tool to Effectively Infuse Ethical Principles: If you are planning to infuse strong, ethical principles throughout your company or want to change the culture of your company, then you might take the advice of Bob Kniffin, Vice President of External Affairs, at Johnson and Johnson (J&J) company. The way that J&J handled an ethical issue (the "Tylenol scare" crisis) in the 1980s is probably one of the most inspiring and enlightening examples of how to successfully deal with a major ethical issue in business. Kniffin was one of the key players in helping J&J to handle the crisis so effectively. Kniffin said that it was not the J&J Credo (a form of a code of ethics) that helped J&J to handle the crisis so well. Rather, it was the ongoing "challenge sessions" that the company regularly held in order for each person to clarify their own perspective and commitment to the J&J Credo. Authenticity Consulting's peer coaching groups are a powerful, yet straightforward, means to organize, facilitate and evaluate challenge sessions. For more information about the peer coaching groups, go to our publications site (http://www.authenticityconsulting.com/act-lrn/AC_pubs.htm) and consider the "Program Planning Kit".

About this Free Guidebook
· This free guidebook aims to fill a large void of practical, realistic ethics information for leaders and managers, whether nonprofit or for-profit.
· This guidebook takes about two hours to read. It is concisely written and well organized as a step-by-step guidebook for handy reference.
· This guidebook is free in order to make its contents highly accessible to organizations, particularly those with limited resources. The free nature of this document does not in any way indicate that its content are of low value -- high fees and impressive presentation do not necessarily imply high value.
· The author hopes the on-line form of this document remains a dynamic community resource that is continually modified and improved by feedback, particularly from leaders and managers -- those people in the trenches who are charged with applying business ethics techniques in the workplace. Please share your reactions, suggestions or experiences around using this document by sending e-mail to Carter McNamara (http://www.managementhelp.org/contact.htm).

This document contains the following sections:
Document Fills Void of Practical Ethics Information for Leaders and Managers
What is Business Ethics?
10 Myths About Business Ethics
10 Benefits of Managing Ethics in the Workplace
One Description of a Highly Ethical Organization
Ethics Management Programs: An Overview
8 Guidelines for Managing Ethics in the Workplace
6 Key Roles and Responsibilities in Ethics Management
Ethics Tools: Codes of Ethics
Ethics Tools: Codes of Conduct
Ethics Tools: Policies and Procedures
Ethics Tools: Resolving Ethical Dilemmas (with Real-to-Life Examples)
Ethics Tools: Training
About the Author
Bibliography of Practical Resources
Related Links in the Free Management Library

To Form Local Learning Communities to Practice Ethics Management
To Form Local Learning Communities, eg, to Learn This Topic
(at http://www.authenticityconsulting.com/pubs.htm)

Acknowledgment
Particular "Thanks!" goes to Twin Cities-based consultants, Doug Wallace and Jon Pekel, of the Fulcrum Group (651-714-9033; e-mail at jonpekel@atti.com), for contributing key information to this document. I have referenced their copyright where I included their key materials in this guidebook.

Document Fills a Void of Practical Business Ethics Information for Leaders and Managers
Current Literature is Focused on Needs of Philosophers, Academics and Social Critics --
Leaders and Managers Require More Practical Information About Managing Ethics
Managing ethics in the workplace holds tremendous benefit for leaders and managers, benefits both moral and practical. This is particularly true today when it is critical to understand and manage highly diverse values in the workplace.

However, the field of business ethics has traditionally been the domain of philosophers, academics and social critics. Consequently, much of today's literature about business ethics is not geared toward the practical needs of leaders and managers -- the people primarily responsible for managing ethics in the workplace. The most frequent forms of business ethics literature today typically include: a) philosophical, which requires extensive orientation and analysis; b) anthologies, which require much time, review and integration; c) case studies, which require numerous cases, and much time and analyses to synthesize; and d) focus on social responsibility, which includes many examples of good and bad actions taken by companies. (This lack of practical information is not the fault of philosophers, academic or social critics. The problem is the outcome of insufficient involvement of leaders and managers in discussion and literature about business ethics. More leaders and managers must become involved. This guidebook aims to increase that involvement.)

What's Conspicuously Missing is the "How to" of Managing Ethics in the Workplace
But it isn't from lack of examples that managers aren't better at managing ethics in the workplace -- they require more practical information about managing ethics. This problem was explained very well by Stark in his article, "What's the Matter with Business Ethics?" published in the Harvard Business Review (1993, May/June, pp. 38-48). Brenner (Journal of Business Ethics, V11, pp. 391:399) notes "while much has been written about individual components of ethics programs, especially about codes of ethics, the literature is much more limited on ethics programs." Wong and Beckman (Journal of Business Ethics, V11, pp. 173-178) note that "researchers are claiming that current literature is filled with strong arguments for more ethical corporate leadership and incorporation of ethics in business curriculum, but what is conspicuously missing is the "how to" in actually putting ethical goals and theories into practical action."

Myths Abound About Business Ethics, e.g., "Ethics is Simply to Do What's Right"
Lack of involvement from leaders and managers in the field of business ethics (again, this is the fault of no one or of everyone) has spawned a great deal of confusion and misunderstanding among leaders and managers about business ethics. McDonald and Zepp, in their article "What Should Be Done? A Practical Approach to Business Ethics" (Management Decision, 28, 1, 1990, pp. 9-13), note that when someone brings up the topic of business ethics "... it tends to bring up cynicism, righteousness, paranoia, and laughter." Many leaders and managers believe business ethics is religion because it seems to contain a great deal of preaching. Or, they believe it to be superfluous because it seems to merely assert the obvious: "do good!"

Business Ethics Literature is Often Far Too Simplistic -- So Many Leaders and Managers Think Business Ethics is Irrelevant
Stark notes that "often ethicists advance a kind of moral absolutism that avoids many of the difficult and most interesting questions." Case studies to explore ethical dilemmas are often far too simplistic, presented as if every real-life situation has a right and wrong e.g., "should I lie, cheat or steal?" Consequently, many managers believe business ethics is irrelevant because too much business ethics training avoids the real-to-life complexities in leading organizations. (This document contains samples of real-to-life, complex ethical dilemmas, in a subsection, "Examples of Real-to-Life Complex Ethical Dilemmas" in the upcoming section "Ethics Tools: Resolving Ethical Dilemmas.") Bob Dunn, President and CEO of San Francisco-based Business for Social Responsibility, explains, "Ethical decisions aren't as easy as they used to be. Now, they're the difference between right -- and right." Preston Townley, in his speech "Business Ethics: Commitment to Tough Decisions" (Vital Speeches, January 1992, pp. 208-211), states that "... it ought to be fairly easy to choose between right and wrong by relying on principles, but business activity often demands that we select from alternatives that are neither wholly right or wholly wrong."

What is Business Ethics?
Let's Start With "What is ethics?" Simply put, ethics involves learning what is right or wrong, and then doing the right thing -- but "the right thing" is not nearly as straightforward as conveyed in a great deal of business ethics literature. Most ethical dilemmas in the workplace are not simply a matter of "Should Bob steal from Jack?" or "Should Jack lie to his boss?"

(Many ethicists assert there's always a right thing to do based on moral principle, and others believe the right thing to do depends on the situation -- ultimately it's up to the individual.) Many philosophers consider ethics to be the "science of conduct." Twin Cities consultants Doug Wallace and John Pekel (of the Twin Cities-based Fulcrum Group; 651-714-9033; e-mail at jonpekel@atti.com) explain that ethics includes the fundamental ground rules by which we live our lives. Philosophers have been discussing ethics for at least 2500 years, since the time of Socrates and Plato. Many ethicists consider emerging ethical beliefs to be "state of the art" legal matters, i.e., what becomes an ethical guideline today is often translated to a law, regulation or rule tomorrow. Values which guide how we ought to behave are considered moral values, e.g., values such as respect, honesty, fairness, responsibility, etc. Statements around how these values are applied are sometimes called moral or ethical principles.

So What is "Business Ethics"? The concept has come to mean various things to various people, but generally it's coming to know what it right or wrong in the workplace and doing what's right -- this is in regard to effects of products/services and in relationships with stakeholders. Wallace and Pekel explain that attention to business ethics is critical during times of fundamental change -- times much like those faced now by businesses, both nonprofit or for-profit. In times of fundamental change, values that were previously taken for granted are now strongly questioned. Many of these values are no longer followed. Consequently, there is no clear moral compass to guide leaders through complex dilemmas about what is right or wrong. Attention to ethics in the workplace sensitizes leaders and staff to how they should act. Perhaps most important, attention to ethics in the workplaces helps ensure that when leaders and managers are struggling in times of crises and confusion, they retain a strong moral compass. However, attention to business ethics provides numerous other benefits, as well (these benefits are listed later in this document).

Note that many people react that business ethics, with its continuing attention to "doing the right thing," only asserts the obvious ("be good," "don't lie," etc.), and so these people don't take business ethics seriously. For many of us, these principles of the obvious can go right out the door during times of stress. Consequently, business ethics can be strong preventative medicine. Anyway, there are many other benefits of managing ethics in the workplace. These benefits are explained later in this document.

Two Broad Areas of Business Ethics
1. Managerial mischief. Madsen and Shafritz, in their book "Essentials of Business Ethics" (Penguin Books, 1990) further explain that "managerial mischief" includes "illegal, unethical, or questionable practices of individual managers or organizations, as well as the causes of such behaviors and remedies to eradicate them." There has been a great deal written about managerial mischief, leading many to believe that business ethics is merely a matter of preaching the basics of what is right and wrong. More often, though, business ethics is a matter of dealing with dilemmas that have no clear indication of what is right or wrong.
2. Moral mazes. The other broad area of business ethics is "moral mazes of management" and includes the numerous ethical problems that managers must deal with on a daily basis, such as potential conflicts of interest, wrongful use of resources, mismanagement of contracts and agreements, etc.

Business ethics is now a management discipline. Business ethics has come to be considered a management discipline, especially since the birth of the social responsibility movement in the 1960s. In that decade, social awareness movements raised expectations of businesses to use their massive financial and social influence to address social problems such as poverty, crime, environmental protection, equal rights, public health and improving education. An increasing number of people asserted that because businesses were making a profit from using our country's resources, these businesses owed it to our country to work to improve society. Many researchers, business schools and managers have recognized this broader constituency, and in their planning and operations have replaced the word "stockholder" with "stakeholder," meaning to include employees, customers, suppliers and the wider community.

The emergence of business ethics is similar to other management disciplines. For example, organizations realized that they needed to manage a more positive image to the public and so the recent discipline of public relations was born. Organizations realized they needed to better manage their human resources and so the recent discipline of human resources was born. As commerce became more complicated and dynamic, organizations realized they needed more guidance to ensure their dealings supported the common good and did not harm others -- and so business ethics was born.

Note that 90% of business schools now provide some form of training in business ethics. Today, ethics in the workplace can be managed through use of codes of ethics, codes of conduct, roles of ethicists and ethics committees, policies and procedures, procedures to resolve ethical dilemmas, ethics training, etc.

10 Myths About Business Ethics
Business ethics in the workplace is about prioritizing moral values for the workplace and ensuring behaviors are aligned with those values -- it's values management. Yet, myths abound about business ethics. Some of these myths arise from general confusion about the notion of ethics. Other myths arise from narrow or simplistic views of ethical dilemmas.
1. Myth: Business ethics is more a matter of religion than management. Diane Kirrane, in "Managing Values: A Systematic Approach to Business Ethics," (Training and Development Journal, November 1990), asserts that "altering people's values or souls isn't the aim of an organizational ethics program -- managing values and conflict among them is ..."
2. Myth: Our employees are ethical so we don't need attention to business ethics. Most of the ethical dilemmas faced by managers in the workplace are highly complex. Wallace explains that one knows when they have a significant ethical conflict when there is presence of a) significant value conflicts among differing interests, b) real alternatives that are equality justifiable, and c) significant consequences on "stakeholders" in the situation. Kirrane mentions that when the topic of business ethics comes up, people are quick to speak of the Golden Rule, honesty and courtesy. But when presented with complex ethical dilemmas, most people realize there's a wide "gray area" when trying to apply ethical principles.
3. Myth: Business ethics is a discipline best led by philosophers, academics and theologians. Lack of involvement of leaders and managers in business ethics literature and discussions has led many to believe that business ethics is a fad or movement, having little to do with the day-to-day realities of running an organization. They believe business ethics is primarily a complex philosophical debate or a religion. However, business ethics is a management discipline with a programmatic approach that includes several practical tools. Ethics management programs have practical applications in other areas of management areas, as well. (These applications are listed later on in this document.)
4. Myth: Business ethics is superfluous -- it only asserts the obvious: "do good!" Many people react that codes of ethics, or lists of ethical values to which the organization aspires, are rather superfluous because they represent values to which everyone should naturally aspire. However, the value of a codes of ethics to an organization is its priority and focus regarding certain ethical values in that workplace. For example, it’s obvious that all people should be honest. However, if an organization is struggling around continuing occasions of deceit in the workplace, a priority on honesty is very timely -- and honesty should be listed in that organization’s code of ethics. Note that a code of ethics is an organic instrument that changes with the needs of society and the organization.
5. Myth: Business ethics is a matter of the good guys preaching to the bad guys. Some writers do seem to claim a moral high ground while lamenting the poor condition of business and its leaders. However, those people well versed in managing organizations realize that good people can take bad actions, particularly when stressed or confused. (Stress or confusion are not excuses for unethical actions -- they are reasons.) Managing ethics in the workplace includes all of us working together to help each other remain ethical and to work through confusing and stressful ethical dilemmas.
6. Myth: Business ethics in the new policeperson on the block. Many believe business ethics is a recent phenomenon because of increased attention to the topic in popular and management literature. However, business ethics was written about even 2,000 years ago -- at least since Cicero wrote about the topic in his On Duties. Business ethics has gotten more attention recently because of the social responsibility movement that started in the 1960s.
7. Myth: Ethics can't be managed. Actually, ethics is always "managed" -- but, too often, indirectly. For example, the behavior of the organization's founder or current leader is a strong moral influence, or directive if you will, on behavior or employees in the workplace. Strategic priorities (profit maximization, expanding marketshare, cutting costs, etc.) can be very strong influences on morality. Laws, regulations and rules directly influence behaviors to be more ethical, usually in a manner that improves the general good and/or minimizes harm to the community. Some are still skeptical about business ethics, believing you can't manage values in an organization. Donaldson and Davis (Management Decision, V28, N6) note that management, after all, is a value system. Skeptics might consider the tremendous influence of several "codes of ethics," such as the "10 Commandments" in Christian religions or the U.S. Constitution. Codes can be very powerful in smaller "organizations" as well.
8. Myth: Business ethics and social responsibility are the same thing. The social responsibility movement is one aspect of the overall discipline of business ethics. Madsen and Shafritz refine the definition of business ethics to be: 1) an application of ethics to the corporate community, 2) a way to determine responsibility in business dealings, 3) the identification of important business and social issues, and 4) a critique of business. Items 3 and 4 are often matters of social responsibility. (There has been a great deal of public discussion and writing about items 3 and 4. However, there needs to be more written about items 1 and 2, about how business ethics can be managed.) Writings about social responsibility often do not address practical matters of managing ethics in the workplace, e.g., developing codes, updating polices and procedures, approaches to resolving ethical dilemmas, etc.
9. Myth: Our organization is not in trouble with the law, so we're ethical. One can often be unethical, yet operate within the limits of the law, e.g., withhold information from superiors, fudge on budgets, constantly complain about others, etc. However, breaking the law often starts with unethical behavior that has gone unnoticed. The "boil the frog" phenomena is a useful parable here: If you put a frog in hot water, it immediately jumps out. If you put a frog in cool water and slowly heat up the water, you can eventually boil the frog. The frog doesn't seem to notice the adverse change in its environment.
10. Myth: Managing ethics in the workplace has little practical relevance. Managing ethics in the workplace involves identifying and prioritizing values to guide behaviors in the organization, and establishing associated policies and procedures to ensure those behaviors are conducted. One might call this "values management." Values management is also highly important in other management practices, e.g., managing diversity, Total Quality Management and strategic planning.

10 Benefits of Managing Ethics in the Workplace
Many people are used to reading or hearing of the moral benefits of attention to business ethics. However, there are other types of benefits, as well. The following list describes various types of benefits from managing ethics in the workplace.
1. Attention to business ethics has substantially improved society. A matter of decades ago, children in our country worked 16-hour days. Workers’ limbs were torn off and disabled workers were condemned to poverty and often to starvation. Trusts controlled some markets to the extent that prices were fixed and small businesses choked out. Price fixing crippled normal market forces. Employees were terminated based on personalities. Influence was applied through intimidation and harassment. Then society reacted and demanded that businesses place high value on fairness and equal rights. Anti-trust laws were instituted. Government agencies were established. Unions were organized. Laws and regulations were established.
2. Ethics programs help maintain a moral course in turbulent times. As noted earlier in this document, Wallace and Pekel explain that attention to business ethics is critical during times of fundamental change -- times much like those faced now by businesses, both nonprofit or for-profit. During times of change, there is often no clear moral compass to guide leaders through complex conflicts about what is right or wrong. Continuing attention to ethics in the workplace sensitizes leaders and staff to how they want to act -- consistently.
3. Ethics programs cultivate strong teamwork and productivity. Ethics programs align employee behaviors with those top priority ethical values preferred by leaders of the organization. Usually, an organization finds surprising disparity between its preferred values and the values actually reflected by behaviors in the workplace. Ongoing attention and dialogue regarding values in the workplace builds openness, integrity and community -- critical ingredients of strong teams in the workplace. Employees feel strong alignment between their values and those of the organization. They react with strong motivation and performance.
4. Ethics programs support employee growth and meaning. Attention to ethics in the workplace helps employees face reality, both good and bad -- in the organization and themselves. Employees feel full confidence they can admit and deal with whatever comes their way. Bennett, in his article "Unethical Behavior, Stress Appear Linked" (Wall Street Journal, April 11, 1991, p. B1), explained that a consulting company tested a range of executives and managers. Their most striking finding: the more emotionally healthy executives, as measured on a battery of tests, the more likely they were to score high on ethics tests.
5. Ethics programs are an insurance policy -- they help ensure that policies are legal. There is an increasing number of lawsuits in regard to personnel matters and to effects of an organization’s services or products on stakeholders. As mentioned earlier in this document, ethical principles are often state-of-the-art legal matters. These principles are often applied to current, major ethical issues to become legislation. Attention to ethics ensures highly ethical policies and procedures in the workplace. It’s far better to incur the cost of mechanisms to ensure ethical practices now than to incur costs of litigation later. A major intent of well-designed personnel policies is to ensure ethical treatment of employees, e.g., in matters of hiring, evaluating, disciplining, firing, etc. Drake and Drake (California Management Review, V16, pp. 107-123) note that “an employer can be subject to suit for breach of contract for failure to comply with any promise it made, so the gap between stated corporate culture and actual practice has significant legal, as well as ethical implications.”
6. Ethics programs help avoid criminal acts “of omission” and can lower fines. Ethics programs tend to detect ethical issues and violations early on so they can be reported or addressed. In some cases, when an organization is aware of an actual or potential violation and does not report it to the appropriate authorities, this can be considered a criminal act, e.g., in business dealings with certain government agencies, such as the Defense Department. The recent Federal Sentencing Guidelines specify major penalties for various types of major ethics violations. However, the guidelines potentially lowers fines if an organization has clearly made an effort to operate ethically.
7. Ethics programs help manage values associated with quality management, strategic planning and diversity management -- this benefit needs far more attention. Ethics programs identify preferred values and ensuring organizational behaviors are aligned with those values. This effort includes recording the values, developing policies and procedures to align behaviors with preferred values, and then training all personnel about the policies and procedures. This overall effort is very useful for several other programs in the workplace that require behaviors to be aligned with values, including quality management, strategic planning and diversity management. Total Quality Management includes high priority on certain operating values, e.g., trust among stakeholders, performance, reliability, measurement, and feedback. Eastman and Polaroid use ethics tools in their quality programs to ensure integrity in their relationships with stakeholders. Ethics management techniques are highly useful for managing strategic values, e.g., expand marketshare, reduce costs, etc. McDonnell Douglas integrates their ethics programs into their strategic planning process. Ethics management programs are also useful in managing diversity. Diversity is much more than the color of people’s skin -- it’s acknowledging different values and perspectives. Diversity programs require recognizing and applying diverse values and perspectives -- these activities are the basis of a sound ethics management program.
8. Ethics programs promote a strong public image. Attention to ethics is also strong public relations -- admittedly, managing ethics should not be done primarily for reasons of public relations. But, frankly, the fact that an organization regularly gives attention to its ethics can portray a strong positive to the public. People see those organizations as valuing people more than profit, as striving to operate with the utmost of integrity and honor. Aligning behavior with values is critical to effective marketing and public relations programs. Consider how Johnson and Johnson handled the Tylenol crisis versus how Exxon handled the oil spill in Alaska. Bob Dunn, President and CEO of San Francisco-based Business for Social Responsibility, puts it best: “Ethical values, consistently applied, are the cornerstones in building a commercially successful and socially responsible business.”
9. Overall benefits of ethics programs: Donaldson and Davis, in “Business Ethics? Yes, But What Can it Do for the Bottom Line?” (Management Decision, V28, N6, 1990) explain that managing ethical values in the workplace legitimizes managerial actions, strengthens the coherence and balance of the organization’s culture, improves trust in relationships between individuals and groups, supports greater consistency in standards and qualities of products, and cultivates greater sensitivity to the impact of the enterprise’s values and messages.
10. Last - and most -- formal attention to ethics in the workplace is the right thing to do.

One Description of a Highly Ethical Organization
Mark Pastin, in The Hard Problems of Management: Gaining the Ethics Edge (Jossey-Bass, 1986), provides the following four principles for highly ethical organizations:
1. They are at ease interacting with diverse internal and external stakeholder groups. The groundrules of these firms make the good of these stakeholder groups part of the organizations' own good.
2. They are obsessed with fairness. Their groundrules emphasize that the other persons' interests count as much as their own.
3. Responsibility is individual rather than collective, with individuals assuming personal responsibility for actions of the organization. These organizations' groundrules mandate that individuals are responsible to themselves.
4. They see their activities in terms of purpose. This purpose is a way of operating that members of the organization highly value. And purpose ties the organization to its environment.

Doug Wallace asserts the following characteristics of a high integrity organization:
1. There exists a clear vision and picture of integrity throughout the organization.
2. The vision is owned and embodied by top management, over time.
3. The reward system is aligned with the vision of integrity.
4. Policies and practices of the organization are aligned with the vision; no mixed messages.
5. It is understood that every significant management decision has ethical value dimensions.
6. Everyone is expected to work through conflicting-stakeholder value perspectives.

Ethics Management Programs: An Overview
About Ethics Management Programs
Organizations can manage ethics in their workplaces by establishing an ethics management program. Brian Schrag, Executive Secretary of the Association for Practical and Professional Ethics, clarifies. "Typically, ethics programs convey corporate values, often using codes and policies to guide decisions and behavior, and can include extensive training and evaluating, depending on the organization. They provide guidance in ethical dilemmas." Rarely are two programs alike.

"All organizations have ethics programs, but most do not know that they do," wrote business ethics professor Stephen Brenner in the Journal of Business Ethics (1992, V11, pp. 391-399). "A corporate ethics program is made up of values, policies and activities which impact the propriety of organization behaviors."

Bob Dunn, President and CEO of San Francisco-based Business for Social Responsibility, adds: "Balancing competing values and reconciling them is a basic purpose of an ethics management program. Business people need more practical tools and information to understand their values and how to manage them."

Benefits of Managing Ethics as a Program
There are numerous benefits in formally managing ethics as a program, rather than as a one-shot effort when it appears to be needed. Ethics programs:
· Establish organizational roles to manage ethics
· Schedule ongoing assessment of ethics requirements
· Establish required operating values and behaviors
· Align organizational behaviors with operating values
· Develop awareness and sensitivity to ethical issues
· Integrate ethical guidelines to decision making
· Structure mechanisms to resolving ethical dilemmas
· Facilitate ongoing evaluation and updates to the program
· Help convince employees that attention to ethics is not just a knee-jerk reaction done to get out of trouble or improve public image

8 Guidelines for Managing Ethics in the Workplace
The following guidelines ensure the ethics management program is operated in a meaningful fashion:
1. Recognize that managing ethics is a process. Ethics is a matter of values and associated behaviors. Values are discerned through the process of ongoing reflection. Therefore, ethics programs may seem more process-oriented than most management practices. Managers tend to be skeptical of process-oriented activities, and instead prefer processes focused on deliverables with measurements. However, experienced managers realize that the deliverables of standard management practices (planning, organizing, motivating, controlling) are only tangible representations of very process-oriented practices. For example, the process of strategic planning is much more important than the plan produced by the process. The same is true for ethics management. Ethics programs do produce deliverables, e.g., codes, policies and procedures, budget items, meeting minutes, authorization forms, newsletters, etc. However, the most important aspect from an ethics management program is the process of reflection and dialogue that produces these deliverables.
2. The bottom line of an ethics program is accomplishing preferred behaviors in the workplace. As with any management practice, the most important outcome is behaviors preferred by the organization. The best of ethical values and intentions are relatively meaningless unless they generate fair and just behaviors in the workplace. That's why practices that generate lists of ethical values, or codes of ethics, must also generate policies, procedures and training that translate those values to appropriate behaviors.
3. The best way to handle ethical dilemmas is to avoid their occurrence in the first place. That's why practices such as developing codes of ethics and codes of conduct are so important. Their development sensitizes employees to ethical considerations and minimize the chances of unethical behavior occurring in the first place.
4. Make ethics decisions in groups, and make decisions public, as appropriate. This usually produces better quality decisions by including diverse interests and perspectives, and increases the credibility of the decision process and outcome by reducing suspicion of unfair bias.
5. Integrate ethics management with other management practices. When developing the values statement during strategic planning, include ethical values preferred in the workplace. When developing personnel policies, reflect on what ethical values you'd like to be most prominent in the organization's culture and then design policies to produce these behaviors.
6. Use cross-functional teams when developing and implementing the ethics management program. It’s vital that the organization’s employees feel a sense of participation and ownership in the program if they are to adhere to its ethical values. Therefore, include employees in developing and operating the program.
7. Value forgiveness. This may sound rather religious or preachy to some, but it’s probably the most important component of any management practice. An ethics management program may at first actually increase the number of ethical issues to be dealt with because people are more sensitive to their occurrence. Consequently, there may be more occasions to address people’s unethical behavior. The most important ingredient for remaining ethical is trying to be ethical. Therefore, help people recognize and address their mistakes and then support them to continue to try operate ethically.
8. Note that trying to operate ethically and making a few mistakes is better than not trying at all. Some organizations have become widely known as operating in a highly ethical manner, e.g., Ben and Jerrys, Johnson and Johnson, Aveda, Hewlett Packard, etc. Unfortunately, it seems that when an organization achieves this strong public image, it's placed on a pedestal by some business ethics writers. All organizations are comprised of people and people are not perfect. However, when a mistake is made by any of these organizations, the organization has a long way to fall. In our increasingly critical society, these organizations are accused of being hypocritical and they are soon pilloried by social critics. Consequently, some leaders may fear sticking their necks out publicly to announce an ethics management program. This is extremely unfortunate. It's the trying that counts and brings peace of mind -- not achieving an heroic status in society.

6 Key Roles and Responsibilities in Ethics Management
Depending on the size of the organization, certain roles may prove useful in managing ethics in the workplace. These can be full-time roles or part-time functions assumed by someone already in the organization. Small organizations certainly will not have the resources to implement each the following roles using different people in the organization. However, the following functions points out responsibilities that should be included somewhere in the organization.
1. The organization's chief executive must fully support the program. If the chief executive isn't fully behind the program, employees will certainly notice -- and this apparent hypocrisy may cause such cynicism that the organization may be worse off than having no formal ethics program at all. Therefore, the chief executive should announce the program, and champion its development and implementation. Most important, the chief executive should consistently aspire to lead in an ethical manner. If a mistake is made, admit it.
2. Consider establishing an ethics committee at the board level. The committee would be charged to oversee development and operation of the ethics management program.
3. Consider establishing an ethics management committee.It would be charged with implementing and administrating an ethics management program, including administrating and training about policies and procedures, and resolving ethical dilemmas. The committee should be comprised of senior officers.
4. Consider assigning/developing an ethics officer. This role is becoming more common, particularly in larger and more progressive organizations. The ethics officer is usually trained about matters of ethics in the workplace, particularly about resolving ethical dilemmas.
5. Consider establishing an ombudsperson. The ombudsperson is responsible to help coordinate development of the policies and procedures to institutionalize moral values in the workplace. This position usually is directly responsible for resolving ethical dilemmas by interpreting policies and procedures.
6. Note that one person must ultimately be responsible for managing the ethics management program.

Ethics Tools: Codes of Ethics
About Codes of Ethics
According to Wallace, "A credo generally describes the highest values to which the company aspires to operate. It contains the `thou shalt's. A code of ethics specifies the ethical rules of operation. It's the `thou shalt not's." In the latter 1980s, The Conference Board, a leading business membership organization, found that 76% of corporations surveyed had codes of ethics.

Some business ethicists disagree that codes have any value. Usually they explain that too much focus is put on the codes themselves, and that codes themselves are not influential in managing ethics in the workplace. Many ethicists note that it's the developing and continuing dialogue around the code's values that is most important.

Occasionally, employees react to codes with suspicion, believing the values are "motherhood and apple pie" and codes are for window dressing. But, when managing a complex issue, especially in a crisis, having a code is critical. More important, it's having developed a code. In the mid-70s, Johnson and Johnson updated their credo in a series of challenge meetings. Bob Kniffin, Vice President of External Affairs, explains, "We pored over each phrase and word. We asked ourselves, `Do we still believe this?' Our meetings resulted in some fine tuning, but basically we didn't change the values. The meetings infused the values in the minds of all of us managers." Many believe this process guided them in their well-known decision to pull Tylenol bottles off the shelves and repackage them at a $100 million expense. Kniffin offers some sound, practical advice. "In a crisis, there's no time for moral conclusions. Get those done beforehand. But also realize there's no substitute for sound crisis management. For example, have a list of people with fundamental knowledge, such as who transports your products where and when."

Developing Codes of Ethics
Note that if your organization is quite large, e.g., includes several large programs or departments, you may want to develop an overall corporate code of ethics and then a separate code to guide each of your programs or departments.

Also note that codes should not be developed out of the Human Resource or Legal departments alone, as is too often done. Codes are insufficient if intended only to ensure that policies are legal. All staff must see the ethics program being driven by top management.

Note that codes of ethics and codes of conduct may be the same in some organizations, depending on the organization's culture and operations and on the ultimate level of specificity in the code(s).

Optional: Also see in the Free Management Library at http://www.mapnp.org/library:
1. Organizational Culture - review to get a basic understanding of "personalities" of organizations
2. Strategic Planning - specific to developing a Values Statement
3. Valuing Diversity - to consider that there are other values and perspectives

Consider the following guidelines when developing codes of ethics:
1. Review any values need to adhere to relevant laws and regulations; this ensures your organization is not (or is not near) breaking any of them. (If you are breaking any of them, you may be far better off to report this violation than to try hide the problem. Often, a reported violation generates more leniency than outside detection of an unreported violation, particularly per the new Federal Sentencing Guidelines.) Increase priority on values that will help your organization operate to avoid breaking these laws and to follow necessary regulations.
2. Review which values produce the top three or four traits of a highly ethical and successful product or service in your area, e.g., for accountants: objectivity, confidentiality, accuracy, etc. Identify which values produce behaviors that exhibit these traits.
3. Identify values needed to address current issues in your workplace. Appoint one or two key people to interview key staff to collect descriptions of major issues in the workplace. Collect descriptions of behaviors that produce the issues. Consider which of these issues is ethical in nature, e.g.., issues in regard to respect, fairness and honesty. Identify the behaviors needed to resolve these issues. Identify which values would generate those preferred behaviors. There may be values included here that some people would not deem as moral or ethical values, e.g., team-building and promptness, but for managers, these practical values may add more relevance and utility to a code of ethics.
4. Identify any values needed, based on findings during strategic planning. Review information from your SWOT analysis (identifying the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats). What behaviors are needed to build on strengths, shore up weaknesses, take advantage of opportunities and guard against threats?
5. Consider any top ethical values that might be prized by stakeholders. For example, consider expectations of employees, clients/customers, suppliers, funders, members of the local community, etc.
6. Collect from the above steps, the top five to ten ethical values which are high priorities in your organization (see item #7 below for examples).
7. Examples of ethical values might include (the following list is the "Six Pillars of Character" developed by The Josephson Institute of Ethics, 310-306-1868):
a) Trustworthiness: honesty, integrity, promise-keeping, loyalty
b) Respect: autonomy, privacy, dignity, courtesy, tolerance, acceptance
c) Responsibility: accountability, pursuit of excellence
d) Caring: compassion, consideration, giving, sharing, kindness, loving
e) Justice and fairness: procedural fairness, impartiality, consistency, equity, equality, due process
f) Civic virtue and citizenship: law abiding, community service, protection of environment
8. Compose your code of ethics; attempt to associate with each value, two example behaviors which reflect each value. Critics of codes of ethics assert that they seem vacuous because many only list ethical values and don't clarify these values by associating examples of behaviors.
9. Include wording that indicates all employees are expected to conform to the values stated in the code of ethics. Add wording that indicates where employees can go if they have any questions.
10. Obtain review from key members of the organization. Get input from as many members as possible.
11. Announce and distribute the new code of ethics (unless you are waiting to announce it along with any new codes of conduct and associated policies and procedures). Ensure each employee has a copy and post codes throughout the facility.
12. Update the code at least once a year. As stated several times in this document, the most important aspect of codes is developing them, not the code itself. Continued dialogue and reflection around ethical values produces ethical sensitivity and consensus. Therefore, revisit your codes at least once a year -- preferably two or three times a year.
13. (Note that you cannot include values and preferred behaviors for every possible ethical dilemma that might arise. Your goal is to focus on the top ethical values needed in your organization and to avoid potential ethical dilemmas that seem mostly likely to occur.)
14. Examples of a code of ethics: This example code was developed by The Management Assistance Program for Nonprofits (http://www.mapnp.org/library/ethics/teamvalu.htm) in St. Paul. The code is geared specifically to guiding relations among staff.

Note that you may be better off to generate your own code of ethics from scratch rather than reviewing examples from other organizations. All ethical values are attractive to include in a code; however, you are most interested in those that provoke behaviors needed in your organization at this time. You may want to include quite different ethical values next year.

Ethics Tools: Codes of Conduct
About Codes of Conduct
"Codes of conduct specify actions in the workplace and codes of ethics are general guides to decisions about those actions," explains Craig Nordlund, Associate General Counsel and Secretary at Hewlett Packard. He suggests that codes of conduct contain examples of appropriate behavior to be meaningful.

The Conference Board found that codes of conduct are increasingly sophisticated and focused at lower levels in companies. Departments frequently have their own codes. Be careful, though. An organization could be sued for breach of contract if its practices are not in accord with its policies. That’s why legal departments should review codes of conduct and other ethics policies. Also, that’s why it’s critical for organizations to review their policies at least once a year to ensure they are in accordance with laws and regulations.

Optional: also see in the Free Management Library at http://www.mapnp.org/library:
1. Employee Law - review major issues and topics to discern what behaviors to avoid in the workplace
2. Policies (Personnel) - review more specifics about what behaviors to avoid

Developing a Code of Conduct
Note that if your organization is quite large, e.g., includes several large programs or departments, you may want to develop an overall corporate code of conduct, and then a separate code to guide each of your programs or departments. Consider the following guidelines when developing codes of conduct:
1. Identify key behaviors needed to adhere to the ethical values proclaimed in your code of ethics, including ethical values derived from review of key laws and regulations, ethical behaviors needed in your product or service area, behaviors to address current issues in your workplace, and behaviors needed to reach strategic goals.
2. Include wording that indicates all employees are expected to conform to the behaviors specified in the code of conduct. Add wording that indicates where employees can go if they have any questions.
3. Obtain review from key members of the organization. Be sure your legal department reviews the drafted code of conduct.
4. Announce and distribute the new code of conduct (unless you are waiting to announce it along with any associated policies and procedures). Ensure each employee has a copy and post codes in each employee's bay or office.
5. (Note that you cannot include preferred behaviors for every possible ethical dilemma that might arise.)
6. Examples of topics typically addressed by codes of conduct include: preferred style of dress, avoiding illegal drugs, following instructions of superiors, being reliable and prompt, maintaining confidentiality, not accepting personal gifts from stakeholders as a result of company role, avoiding racial or sexual discrimination, avoiding conflict of interest, complying with laws and regulations, not using organization's property for personal use, not discriminating against race or age or sexual orientation, and reporting illegal or questionable activity. Go beyond these traditional legalistic expectations in your codes -- adhere to what's ethically sensitive in your organization, as well. (Note that, as with codes of ethics, you may be better off to generate your own code of conduct from scratch rather than reviewing examples from other organizations.)

Ethics Tools: Policies and Procedures
Optional: also see in the Free Management Library at http://www.mapnp.org/library:
Policies (Personnel) - review to understand how to develop and apply personnel policies

1. Update policies and procedures to produce behaviors preferred from the code of conduct, including, e.g., personnel, job descriptions, performance appraisal forms, management-by-objectives expectations, standard forms, checklists, budget report formats, and other relevant control instruments to ensure conformance to the code of conduct. In doing so, try to avoid creating ethical dilemmas such as conflicts-of-interest or infringing on employee's individual rights.
2. There are numerous examples of how organizations manage values through use of policies and procedures. For example, we're most familiar with the value of social responsibility. To produce behavior aligned with this value, organizations often institute policies such as recycling waste, donating to local charities, or paying employees to participate in community events. In another example, a high value on responsiveness to customers might be implemented by instituting policies to return phone calls or to repair defective equipment within a certain period of time. Consider the role of job descriptions and performance appraisals. For example, an advanced technology business will highly value technical knowledge, creativity and systems thinking. They use job descriptions and performance appraisals to encourage behaviors aligned with these values, such as rewarding advanced degrees, patents, and analysis and design skills.
3. Include policies and procedures to address ethical dilemmas. See the next section, "Ethics Tools: Resolving Ethical Dilemmas," to select a method which is most appropriate to your organization's culture and operations.
4. Include policies and procedures to ensure training of employees about the ethics management program. See a following section, "Ethics Tools: Training."
5. Include policies and procedures to reward ethical behavior and impose consequences for unethical behavior.
6. Include a grievance policy for employees to use to resolve disagreements with supervisors and staff.
7. Consider establishing an ethics "hotline." This function might best be provided by an outside consultant, e.g., lawyer, clergyperson, etc. Or, provide an anonymous "tip" box in which personnel can report suspected unethical activities, and do so safely on an anonymous basis.
8. Once a year, review all personnel policies and procedures. If yours is a small organization, consider including all staff during this review. Take a full day for all staff to review policies and procedures, and suggest changes.
9. For guidance in establishing personnel policies, see the Guide to Personnel Management and Policies (http://www.mapnp.org/library/mgmnt/prsnlmnt.htm).

Ethics Tools: Resolving Ethical Dilemmas (with Real-to-Life Examples)
Definition of an Ethical Dilemma. Perhaps too often, business ethics is portrayed as a matter of resolving conflicts in which one option appears to be the clear choice. For example, case studies are often presented in which an employee is faced with whether or not to lie, steal, cheat, abuse another, break terms of a contract, etc. However, ethical dilemmas faced by managers are often more real-to-life and highly complex with no clear guidelines, whether in law or often in religion.

As noted earlier in this document, Doug Wallace, Twin Cities-based consultant, explains that one knows when they have a significant ethical conflict when there is presence of a) significant value conflicts among differing interests, b) real alternatives that are equality justifiable, and c) significant consequences on "stakeholders" in the situation.

An ethical dilemma exists when one is faced with having to make a choice among these alternatives.

Real-to-Life Examples of Complex Ethical Dilemmas
· "A customer (or client) asked for a product (or service) from us today. After telling him our price, he said he couldn't afford it. I know he could get it cheaper from a competitor. Should I tell him about the competitor -- or let him go without getting what he needs? What should I do?"
· "Our company prides itself on its merit-based pay system. One of my employees has done a tremendous job all year, so he deserves strong recognition. However, he's already paid at the top of the salary range for his job grade and our company has too many people in the grade above him, so we can't promote him. What should I do?"
· "Our company prides itself on hiring minorities. One Asian candidate fully fits the job requirements for our open position. However, we're concerned that our customers won't understand his limited command of the English language. What should I do?"
· "My top software designer suddenly refused to use our e-mail system. He explained to me that, as a Christian, he could not use a product built by a company that provided benefits to the partners of homosexual employees. He'd basically cut himself off from our team, creating a major obstacle to our product development. What should I do?"
· "My boss told me that one of my employees is among several others to be laid off soon, and that I'm not to tell my employee yet or he might tell the whole organization which would soon be in an uproar. Meanwhile, I heard from my employee that he plans to buy braces for his daughter and a new carpet for his house. What should I do?"
· "My computer operator told me he'd noticed several personal letters printed from a computer that I was responsible to manage. While we had no specific policies then against personal use of company facilities, I was concerned. I approached the letter writer to discuss the situation. She told me she'd written the letters on her own time to practice using our word processor. What should I do?"
· "A fellow employee told me that he plans to quit the company in two months and start a new job which has been guaranteed to him. Meanwhile, my boss told me that he wasn't going to give me a new opportunity in our company because he was going to give it to my fellow employee now. What should I do?"

Optional: also see in the Free Management Library at http://www.mapnp.org/library:
1. Feedback
2. Listening
3. Questioning
4. Conflict (interpersonal)
5. Negotiating
6. Valuing Diversity

3 Methods to Resolve Ethical Dilemmas
Organizations should develop and document a procedure for dealing with ethical dilemmas as they arise. Ideally, ethical dilemmas should be resolved by a group within the organization, e.g., an ethics committee comprised of top leaders/managers and/or members of the board. Consider having staff members on the committee, as well. The following three methods can be used to address ethical dilemmas. Methods include an ethical checklist, a ten-step method and a list of key questions. (Note that The Golden Rule is probably the most common method to resolve ethical dilemmas. The rule exists in various forms in many of the world religions.)

Method One - Ethical Checklist
Twin Cities-based consultants, Doug Wallace and Jon Pekel, suggest the following ethical checklist to address ethical dilemmas. If necessary, revise your decision and action plan based on results of the this test.

NOTE: To get the longer version of this document, click
here

Ethical Checklist			Circle the appropriate answer on the scale; "1" = not at all; "5" = totally yes
1.	Relevant Information Test. Have I/we obtained as much information as possible to make an informed decision and action plan for this situation?			1	2	3	4	5
2.	Involvement Test. Have I/we involved all who have a right to have input and/or to be involved in making this decision and action plan?			1	2	3	4	5
3.	Consequential Test. Have I/we anticipated and attempted to accommodate for the consequences of this decision and action plan on any who are significantly effected by it?			1	2	3	4	5
4.	Fairness Test. If I/we were assigned to take the place of any one of the stakeholders in this situation, would I/we perceive this decision and action plan to be essentially fair, given all of the circumstances?			1	2	3	4	5
5.	Enduring Values Test. Do this decision and action plan uphold my/our priority enduring values that are relevant to this situation?			1	2	3	4	5
6.	Universality Test. Would I/we want this decision and action plan to become a universal law applicable to all similar situation, even to myself/ourselves?			1	2	3	4	5
7.	Light-of-Day Test. How would I/we feel and be regarded by others (working associates, family, etc.) if the details of this decision and action plan were disclosed for all to know?			1	2	3	4	5
8.	Total Ethical Analysis Confidence Score. Place the total of all circled numbers here.
How confident can you be that you have done a good job of ethical analysis?
7-14 15-21 22-28 29-35		Not very confident Somewhat confident Quite confident Very confident

[Used with permission from Copyright holders: Doug Wallace and Jon Pekel, Twin Cities-based consultants in the Fulcrum Group (651-714-9033; e-mail at jonpekel@atti.com). Do not copy without reference to copyright owners. Not to be used for commercial purposes.]

Method Two - Ten-Step Method of Decision Making
Wallace and Pekel also provide the following ten-step method.

STEPS	NOTES
1. What are the known FACTS in the situation?
2. Who are the key STAKEHOLDERS, what do they value and what are their desired outcomes?
3. What are the UNDERLYING DRIVERS causing the situation?
4. In priority order what ethical principles or operating values do you think should be upheld in this situation?
5. Who should have input to, or be involved in, making this decision?
6. List any alternative and action plans that would: a) prevent or minimize harm to stakeholders b) uphold the priority values for this situation c) be a good solution to the situation	Alternative 1	Alternative 2		Alternative 3
7. Build a WORSE-CASE SCENARIO for your preferred alternative to see how it affects the stakeholders. Rethink and revise your preferred alternative if necessary.
8. Add a PREVENTATIVE ETHICS component to your action plan that deals with the underlying drivers causing the situation listed in Step 3.
9. Evaluate your chosen decision and action plan against the checklist on the reverse side.
10. Decide and build an action plan, and implement and monitor it.

[Used with permission from Copyright holders: Doug Wallace and Jon Pekel, Twin Cities-based consultants in the Fulcrum Group (651-714-9033; e-mail at jonpekel@atti.com). Do not copy without reference to copyright owners. Not to be used for commercial purposes.]

Method Three - Twelve Questions to Address Ethical Dilemmas
Laura L. Nash poses 12 questions to help managers address ethical dilemmas.
1. Have you defined the problem accurately?
2. How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence?
3. How did this situation occur in the first place?
4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalty as a person and as a member of the corporation?
5. What is your intention in making this decision?
6. How does this intention compare with the probable results?
7. Whom could your decision or action injure?
8. Can you discuss the problem with the affected parties before you make your decision?
9. Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seem now?
10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, society as a whole?
11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? misunderstood?
12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand?
(adapted from: Nash, L. (1981). Ethics Without the Sermon. Harvard Business Review, (59))

Ethics Tools: Training
The ethics program is essentially useless unless all staff members are trained about what it is, how it works and their roles in it. The nature of the system may invite suspicion if not handled openly and honestly. In addition, no matter how fair and up-to-date is a set of policies, the legal system will often interpret employee behavior (rather than written policies) as de facto policy. Therefore, all staff must be aware of and act in full accordance with policies and procedures (this is true, whether policies and procedures are for ethics programs or personnel management). This full accordance requires training about policies and procedures.

Optional: Also see in the Free Management Library at http://www.mapnp.org/library
Training Basics for Supervisors and Learners

1. Orient new employees to the organization's ethics program during new-employee orientation.
2. Review the ethics management program in management training experiences.
3. Involving staff in review of codes is strong ethics training.
4. Involving staff in review of policies (ethics and personnel policies) is strong ethics training.
5. One of the strongest forms of ethics training is practice in resolving complex ethical dilemmas. Have staff use any of the three ethical-dilemma-resolution methods in this guidebook and apply them to any of the real-to-life ethical dilemmas also listed in this guidebook.
6. Include ethical performance as a dimension in performance appraisals.
7. The best ethics trainer: Bill Goodman, Chief Human Resource Officer at Aveda, describes, "We start our training even in our job ads," then adds, "but the best trainer is the behavior of our leaders."
8. Give all staff a copy of this free "Complete Guide to Ethics Management."

About the Author
Carter McNamara, PhD, is a Twin Cities-based consultant in the areas of leadership development, board development and strategic planning. He has managed in a wide variety of organizations including startup, public-private, small and large nonprofit, and large corporation. He received comprehensive ethics training as an employee in a large defense contractor, various ethics classes and continuing research in business ethics. In addition, as a manager, he has struggled through several major ethical dilemmas (one was quite public) so he knows and understands the experience. He has led development of several codes of ethics and conduct, as well. Carter holds a BA in Social and Behavioral Sciences, BS in Computer Science, an MBA, and a PhD in Human and Organization Development.

Bibliography of Practical Resources
Hardcopy documents:
The following references are to hardcopy documents that provide information about managing ethics in the workplace:

Berenbeim, R. E. (1992, Spring). "The Corporate Ethics Test". Business and Society Review, 31(1), 77-80.

Brenner, S. N. (1992). "Ethics Programs and Their Dimensions". Journal of Business Ethics, 11,391-399.

Buchholz, R. A. (1989). "Fundamental Concepts and Problems in Business Ethics". In Madsen, P., & Shafritz, J. M. (Eds.) (1990). "Essentials of Business Ethics". New York: Penguin Books.

Carroll, A. B. (1990). "Principles of Business Ethics: Their Role in Decision Making and in Initial Consensus". Management Decision, 28(8), 21-23.

Dean, P. J. (1992). "Making Codes of Ethics 'Real'." Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 285-290.

Deborah, B. (1991, January/February). "Asking for Help: A Guide to Using Socially Responsible Consultants". Business Ethics Magazine, pp. 24-29.

Francis, David R. (1991, June). "Prevent Trouble by Improving Ethics". Christian Science Monitor, p. 9.

Fulcrum Consulting Group, 1093 Snelling Ave. South, Saint Paul, MN 55116. Phone 1-800-55-ETHIC.

Gandz, J. & Bird, F. G. (1989, Autumn). "Designing Ethical Organizations". Business Quarterly, 54(2), 108-112.

Genfan, H. (1987, November). "Formalizing Business Ethics". Training and Development Journal, pp. 35-37.

Josephson Institute of Ethics, 310 Washington Boulevard, Suite 104, Marina del Rey, California. Phone 310-306-1868.

Kirrane, D.E. (1990, November). "Managing Values: A Systematic Approach to Business Ethics". Training and Development Journal, pp. 53-60.

Madsen, P., Ph. D., & Shafritz, J. M., Ph. D. (Eds.). (1990). "Essentials of Business Ethics". New York: Penguin Books.

McDonald, G., & Zepp, R. (1990). "What Should Be Done? A Practical Approach to Business Ethics". Management Decision, 28(1), 9-13.

Nash, L. (1981). "Ethics Without the Sermon". Harvard Business Review, (59).

Navran Associates Management Consultants, 3037 Wembley Ridge, Atlanta, GA. Phone 404-493-8886.

Reynolds, L. (1992, July/August). "The Ethics Audit. Business Ethics Magazine", pp. 20-22.

Sims, R. R. (1991). "Institutionalization of Organizational Ethics". Journal of Business Ethics, 10, 493-506.

Strong, K. C., & Meyer, G. (1992). "An Integrative Descriptive Model of Ethics Decision Making". Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 89-94.

Thompson, T. (1991, Spring). "Managing Business Ethics". Canadian Public Administration, 34(1), 153-157.

Toffler, B. (1991, Winter). "Doing Ethics: An Approach to Business Ethics Consulting". Moral Education Forum, 16(4), 14-20.

World Wide Web Links:
The following are links to Web sites about business ethics.

Extensive list of lists of Web sites, of institutes and of topics (http://www.duke.edu/~wgrobin/ethics/surfing.html)

General business ethics resources at the Center for Applied Ethics (http://www.ethics.ubc.ca/resources/business/)

General site for ethics on the Web (http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/lester/ethics/ethics_list.html)

Ethics updates (this list is mostly for ethics instructors and students rather than managers, but it is extensive and well organized) (http://ethics.acusd.edu/index.html)

Center for Applied Ethics at http://www.ethics.ubc.ca/

Samples of Corporate Codes of Ethics (Center for Applied Ethics at http://www.ethics.ubc.ca/resources/business/codes.html)

List of listservers and groups (http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/lester/ethics/listserver.html)

Related Links in the Free Management Library
The following links are to categories of other topics in the Free Management Library located at http://www.mapnp.org/library on the World Wide Web.
Crisis Management
Employee Wellness Programs
Insurance (Business)
Interpersonal Skills
Guiding Skills
Legal Information (U.S. Law)
Organizational Culture
Personnel policies
Public and Media Relations
Risk Management
Training Basics for Supervisors and Learners

On-Line Discussion Groups, Newsletters, etc.
There are a large number of on-line discussion groups, newsletters (e-zines), etc. in the overall areas of management, business and organization development. Participants, subscribers, etc., can get answers to their questions and learn a lot just by posing the questions to the groups, sharing insights about their experiences, etc. Join some groups and sign up for some newsletters!
References to major egroups, newsletters, etc.

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عضو هيات علمي گروه مديريت دولتي دانشگاه علامه طباطبايي

مقدمه

يكي از زيبا ترين آثار زنده ياد دكتر علي شريعتي سلسله درس هاي سال هاي 50و51 اوست كه تحت عنوان «اسلام شناسي» در حسينه ارشاد ارائه شده است. دفتر تدوين و تنظيم آثار آن بزرگ مرد در سال 60آنها را در 3جلد منتشر كرد. در اين جا اشاره ام به جلد دوم اسلام شناسي يا شماره 17 مجموعه آثار است كه درس هاي دهم تا هفدهم با ضمائم و پيوست هايش در آن ديده مي شود. در درس دوازدهم استاد به بحث در باره « ماركسيسم در سه دوره زندگي ماركس» مي پردازد كه مرور آن در اين زمان وپس از گذشت سه دهه خالي از لطف نيست، در اين كار هدفمبازخواني و بازنويسي فصل 12 بود و براي اين مقصود، مطالبي كه حذف شان ضرري به متن نمي زند، حذف شد و يا برخي از كلمات و جملات جا بجا و يا تركيب گرديد. بديهي است همه اشتباهات ناشي از اين كار به عهده من است و از پيشاميدوارم خواننده آشنا و اهل فن اگر اين كار را غير فني و صدمه زدن به اثر مرحوم شريعتي ارزيابي مي كند، مرا ببخشايد:

دكتر شريعتي در اين درس مي گويد كه اين از اشتباهات عموم است كه از شخصيت ها به صورت «يك»(تاكيد از نگارنده است) متفكر و « فرد مطلق» ياد مي كنند و همه را عنصر مجرد لا يتغيري مي بينند كه در تمام ادوار زندگي شان يكسان بوده اند و هيچ تغيير و دگرگوني يي نپذيرفته اند. همه شعرها و غزل ها و سخنان و نظريات يك شاعر، يا يك متفكر را ، به صاحب اين شعر و اين مكتب منسوب مي كنند. در حالي كه شاعر اين شعر و صاحب اين مكتب، انساني بوده كه در طول زندگي، دوران هاي گوناگون ديده، تحولات فكري و روحي مختلف يافته ]است[. …همچنان كه هر انسان زنده اي كه منجمد و مقلد نباشد…و مرد انديشه و تحقيق و آزاد انديشي باشد، همواره گذشته خويش را انتقاد و تصحيح مي كند، و تغيير كار و زبان و ذائقه، و حتي جهت مي دهد و گاه به صورت انقلابي عوض مي شود.چنين است كه انسان، حركت و تكامل مي يابد. و متفكران و دانشمندان كه داراي نبوغ برجسته اي هستند، بيش از افراد عامي…دوره هاي مختلف دارند.

به نظر شريعتي محققان در تحقيق هاي خود در باره زندگي و آثار يزرگان علم و ادب نبايد به اين دوره ها و تغييرات كه در زندگي آنان رخ مي دهد بي توجه باشند. او براي مثال به ادوار سه گانه زندگي و تغييرات كساني مانند ابي العلا معري، علي(ع)، جلال آل احمد، خيام اشاره خيلي كوتاه مي كند ولي شخصيت محوري او براي تحليل ادوار سه گانه زندگي اش كارل ماركس است.البته اين كار او در ادامه بررسي ماركسيسم است.

دكتر شريعتي معتقد است كه ماركس نيز مانند هر شخصيت بزرگ ديگري،سه مرحله مهم در زندگي خود گذرانده است و اگر نظريه اي در نظريه هايش مخالف نظريه ديگرش يافت مي شود، به اين دليل است كه ممكن است او نظريه اي را در يك دوره و نظريه اي ديگر در دوره اي ديگر از زندگي اش ارائه كرده باشد. يكي، از ماركس 25 ساله و ديگري از ماركس 50 ساله. زيرا انساني كه متحول و متحرك است نمي تواند اين همه سال را ساكن باشد و براي همين در خط سيري از رشد، تكامل و تغيير مي يابد. به نظر او انسان گاهي از هيچ به همه چيز مي رسد و زماني از همه چيز به هيچ مي آيد. انسان دو مقدمه و يك نتيجه نيست كه بتوان او را تحليلي خطي كرد، بلكه عوامل بي نهايتي در او اثر مي گذارند و هر عملش برآيند بي نهايت علل است كه محقق قادر به بررسي همه آنها نيست.به همين دليل است كه پيش بيني رفتارهاي فرد و جامعه كار بسيار دشواري است. تحليل ها عموماً متكي بر عوامل شناخته شده است در حالي كه عوامل غير قابل پيش بيني،پديده هاي ناگهاني و يا مجهول، در اراده آدمي ، يا يك نسل و يك طبقه وجود دارند كه قابل محاسبه و لحاظ كردن نيست. هم چنينورود مقوله هايي چون « آگاهي انساني »، « اراده» و « تصميم » ناشي از مواجهه با يك تحليل، مي تواند سرنوشت و نتيجه آنپيش بيني – هر چند درست و منطقي - را تغيير دهد.

اهميت« فرد » و « حوادثي» كه در زندگي خصوصي فرد رخ داده اند و تاثير آنها بر مسائل اجتماعي، منطقي و روان شناسي نبايد ناديده گرفت، چه واقعيت هاي تاريخي وچه وقايع اجتماعي و چه زندگي فردي. اينها همواره با اصول عقلي و منطقي سازگار نيستند و براي همين مسائل را نبايد صرفاً از زاويه منطقي بررسي كرد. بويژه رفتار انسان كه هميشه با منطبق بر محاسبات منطقي نيست. در آن جا كه انسان هست، تحليل منطقي محض خود بي منطق ترين نوع تحليل است. براي مطالعه و بررسي پديده هاي اجتماعي، متدولوژي مورد توصيه شريعتي مطالعه بيوگرافي شخص است. واقعيت هايي كه در زندگي شخصي هر فرد رخ داده اند، بايستي به طور دقيق، بي طرفانه و منطقي شناسايي و بررسي كرد.

شريعتي پس از ارائه مقدمه فوق، ادوار زندگي ماركس را به سه دورهي 1- ماركس جوان، ماركس فيلسوف2- ماركس جامعه شناس 3- ماركس رهبر، تقسيم مي كند.

1- ماركس جوان: ماركس در دوره نخست زندگي اش در گروه شاگردان هگل قرار دارد. او در اين دوره، فيلسوفي است ايده آليست مجرد بين و مجرد نگر كه توان درك واقعيات و آن چه را كه در عينيت زندگي بشر مي گذرد، ندارد. ماركس جوان و فيلسوف مآب خود بخود نمي تواند از عشق مصون بماند. او به شدت عاشق دختري مي شود و غزليات سوزناكي مي سازد كه ديوان غزل هايش هم اكنون به آلماني وجود دارد و مختصري از آن هم به فرانسوي ترجمه شده است. روحانيون جامعه قرن نوزده آلمان با ازدواج ماركس ضد دين با دخترك مؤمن زاده به شدت مخالفت مي كنند و اين براي ماركس عقده اي ميشود كه در آثار اين دوره او – و حتي آثار دوره بعدي زندگي اش كه يك جامعه شناس است –و جبهه گيري ضد مذهبي اش تاثير مي گذارد. او كه بر اثر ممانعت روحانيون و پارسايان مذهبي از وصل معشوق محروم مانده است، ضمن دفاع از آزادي عشق و آزادي جنسي، به بورژوازي حمله مي كند و بورژوازي را فاجعه اي ضد انساني مي خواند و در اين كار بيش از هر چيز به دو عنصر« پول » و « پارسايي » تاكيد مي ورزد. به نظر ماركس، زهد و پارسايي همچون پولعامل اليناسيون انسان (مسخ و از خود بيگانه شدن) است. تاكيد او بر زهدخاص خود اوست.

2- ماركس دانشمند: ماركس در دوره دوم زندگي اش يك جامعه شناس متعهد است.اين دوره همراه با وقوع انشعاب در پيروان هگل، شروع مبارزات اجتماعي نيمه اول سده 19 در آلمان و انگليس و فرانسه و اوج گرفتن مبارزات كارگري در سال هاي 1860 تا 1870است. ماركس نيز يكي از انشعابيون است كه اندك اندك از انديشه هاي ذهني مجرد فلسفي بيرون آمده است و متوجه مسائل اجتماعي و زندگي مردم شده است.تاثير مباني فلسفي و آموزه هاي هگل در آثار و تحليل هاي او هويداست. در اين دوره كه پرودن رهبر كارگران آلمان ، فرانسه و انگليس است و بزرگترين شعارهاي طبقاتي، كارگري و انقلابي را بر عليه مالكيت و استثمار مطرح مي كند، ماركس جوان فيلسوف مآبگمنامي است كه به تازگي به مسائل اجتماعي روي آورده است و كم كم دارد به كمونيسم معتقد مي شود و پيش از جوانه زدن اين اعتقاد جديد، مدت ها با پرودن مبارزه كرده است و رو در روي او ايستاده است. ولي با همه تضادي كه با او دارد به عنوان يك عالم جامعه شناس كتاب «مالكيت چيست؟» پرودن را با بزرگترين ستايش ها ارج مي نهد. پرودن معتقد است مالكيت دزدي است و مالكيت فردي را نفي مي كند و كمونيسم را هم نوعي مالكيت دولتي و دولت پرستي مي خواند و از اين جهت رو در روي ماركس ايستاده است. اما ماركس اثر او را به عنوان يك اثر علمي و او را به عنوان بنيانگذار و رهبر و بزرگترين ليدر پرولتارياي صنعتي قرن 19 – پيش از خود- مي ستايد. او تا وقتي كه ماركس جامعه شناس است مي گويد: « من ايدئولوژي ندارم و هر كس ماركسيسم را ايدئولوژي بداند، نه تنها مرا ، بلكههدفم را نيز نفي كرده، و سخنم را نفهميده و به چيزي كه نيستم و ندارم متهمم كرده است، چه تمام راه ومكتبم، نفي ايدئولوژي است». او هر ايدئولوژي يي را توجيه وضع موجود مي مي داند كه توسط متفكرين و مكتب سازان براي فريب مردم ساخته مي شود. مكتب سازان با ايجاد ايدئولوژي حقيقتي مي سازند كه حقيقت ندارد. و ماركسيسم هر گونه ايدئولوژي را به يكي از ابزارهاي طبقه حاكم مي شناسد. ماركس دانشمند، ماركسيسمرا نه عقيده، نه ايده آل، نه راه نشان دادن، نه طرح مساله و پيشنهاد مي داند، بلكه آن را فقط« فن كشف تاريخ » معرفي مي كند. اين عين سخن ماركس است كه: « كار ما، كشف قوانين علمي حركت تاريخ است». سخن گفتن ماركس جامعه شناس از جنس « سخنان خبري است».

3- ماركس سياستمدار و رهبر: ماركس تا وقتي كه عالم و جامعه شناس است انصاف علمي اش را با خويش به همراه دارد ولي چون وارد مبارزات سياسي مي شود، شديد ترين حمله ها را به پرودن آغاز مي كند و او را اديبي لفاظ مي خواند كه نه پايگاه طبقاتي دارد و نه پايگاه اعتقادي و ايدئولوژيكي. اين نوع برخورد او طبيعي است چون او حالا وارد يك دوره ديگر از زندگي خود شده است كه همانا دوره مبارزات سياسي است. او اكنون به دنبال به دنبال جلب نظر طبقه كارگر و طرح كردن خود و به دست گرفتن رهبري عموم كارگران است. كسي پيروز مي شود كه شعارهايي تندتر و متناسب تر و مورد نيازتر و خشم آميز و قاطع و روشن و بي ترديد و يك جهت تر از شعارهاي رقيب داشته باشد. از اين جاست كه زبان علم و زبان سياست از يكديگر جدا مي شوند. سيماي آخرين ماركس براي هم بيشتر آشناست، چون آخرين حرفها و نوشته هايش در اين دوره مطرح شده است و در پايان اين مرحله است كه در اوج كوشش هاي سياسي-طبقاتي اش تمام مي شود و مي ميرد. در اين دوره چهره علمي او دگرگون مي شود و سيمايي ديپلماتيك بخود مي گيرد. از 1860 به بعد از صورت يك متفكر منطقي جامعه شناس دانشگاهي در مي آيد و به يك رهبر سياسي، حزبي و طبقاتي و يك ليدر متعهد سياسي تبديل مي شود كه رسالت پيروزي گروه يا طبقه اي را در متن زندگي اجتماعي به دست مي گيرد و پيش مي رود. از اين جا به بعد لحن او عوض مي شود. در اين دوره «ماركسيسم حقيقت» به «ماركسيسم مصلحت» و شعار علمي به شعار سياسي تبديل مي شود. ماركسيسم در آخرين مرحله زندگي ماركس از صورت علم كشف جبر منطقي تاريخ در مي آيد و به يك ايدئولوژي سازنده ي حزبي تبديل مي شود.

زنده ياد مرحوم دكتــــــــــر شريعتي در پايان اين گفتار «ماركس جامعه شناس» را « ماركس كامل » مي خواند.

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سازمان اداري ايران: عصر صفويه(1)

نوشته ی : بهروز رضايی منش

عضو هيات علمی گروه مديريت دولتی دانشگاه علامه طباطبايي

مقدمه

بررسي سازمان و تشكيلات اداري مربوط به گذشته ي تاريخي ايران آسان نيست. زيرا همين كه محقق چنين اراده اي مي كند و به سراغ منابع تاريخي ايران مي رود با قلت منابع ايراني مواجه مي شود. مينورسكي در اين باره اعتقاد دارد كه براي تشكيلات اداري كشورهايي مانند مصر و حكومت عثماني و هند چندين رساله ي ممتاز وجود دارد در حالي كه نظير اين آثار در منابع فارسي وجود ندارد( دبير سياقي، 2: 1378). مينورسكي[1] در خصوص منابع ايراني مي نويســد : « سياست نامه ي خواجه نظام الملك از مهم ترين آثار زبان فارسي است كه گوياي سياست و آداب ملك داري است نه مبين تشكيلات اداري دولت سلجوقي و رساله ي مختصر خواجه نصيرالدين طوسي در باب ماليات بسيار ارزنده و ممتاز است اما دامنه ي بحث و موضوع آن محدود مي باشد و حاوي هيچ گونه آمار و شمار نيست. جامع التواريخ رشيدالدين فضل الله دور نمايي از اصلاحات غازان خان را تجسم مي دهد ولي از دواير و عوايد و حقوقات و امثال آن گفتگويي ندارد اما نزهه القلوب حمدالله مستوفي (تاليف740) در مقام مقايسه با جامع التواريخ مختصات و امتيازاتي دارد زيرا در آن به تقسيمات جغرافيايي و ماليات ها و عوايد دولتي و وضع اقتصــادي كشور توجهي رفته است و ...» ( دبير سياقي و رجب نيا، 2و3: 1378). مينورسكي براي نشان دادن اهميت و امتياز رساله ي معتبر تذكره الملوك و ضعيف بودن ديگر نوشته هاي تاريخي ايران و نيز در شرح علت كمبود منابع ايراني معتقد است اغلب منابع ايراني « در بيان كامل مطالب و وقايع كوتاه آمده اند، لقمه لقمه اندوخته و رقعه رقعه بهم دوخته و نقل كرده نتيجتاً ...منابع و مآخذ... علاوه بر آن كه فراوان نيستند و منحصرند مؤيد و مصداقي نيز ندارند، چه تهاجمات بسيار و نقل و انتقال مكرر پايتخت ها مدارك و سوابق و اسنـاد دولتي را نابود كرده است( دبير سياقي و رجب نيا، 3: 1378).

لازم به نظر مي رسد كه در اين جا مختصر سخناني در باره ي نحوه ي تشكيل دولت ملي صفويه آورده شود:

روشن است كه در ايران پيش از بر روي كار آمدن صفويه در قرن 16 ميلادي (و قرن 10 هجري قمري) هيچ گونه حكومت ملي و يك واحد سياسي يك پارچه نبوده است و پيش از آن همه ي حكومت ها از سلسله هاي محلي مستقل تشكيل مي شدند. بنابراين بديهي است كه ظهور سلسله ي صفويه نقطه ي آغازين دوران نوين تاريخ ايران دانسته شود كه طي آن حكومتي ملي بر پايه ي مذهب بنا گذارده شد. دو ويژگي مهم صفويه را مي توان چنين بر شمرد: يك-رسميت بخشيدن به مذهب تشيع در سراسر كشور (كه مورد توجه توده ي محروم بود و توانست از طريق ايجاد وحدت كلمه و همبستگي بين قبايل و دولت هاي محلي، ايران را از ديگر كشورهاي همسايه جدا كند)، دو- و توانست نظر مهر و محبت اروپاييان را كه دشمن ديرينه ي ترك ها بودند به سوي خود جلب كنند و با آنان روابط سياسي و بازرگاني برقرار كند(نوذري، 262-261: 1380).

الف- ساختار اجتماعي دولت صفويه

1.وجود شاه در راس هرم قدرت به عنوان حاكم مطلق كه امور جاري مملكت را با رعايت قوانين مذهبي انجام مي داد.هيچ موضوعي بدون تصويب شاه به مورد اجرا در نمي آمد(تمركز اداري بالا). شاه خود نيز عزل و نصب ها را بر عهده داشت(تركمان، 1089: 1350). نكته ي قابل توجه اين است كه شاه در چشم مردم همچون يك پيامبر بود و او را همچون خدا دوست دارند و احترام مي كنند و فرمان هاي او را وحي منزل مي پندارند.اطاعت محض ايرانيان از شاه در همه ي امور ناشي از آن است كه معتقدند شاه جنبه اي فوق بشري داشته و كلام خدا بر زبان وي مي گذرد(دبير سياقي و رجب نيا، 18: 1378).

2.وزير كه در راس ديوان سالاري قرار داشت، برخوردار از لقب اعتمادالدوله بود.

3.اشرافيت كشوري و لشكري، سران فئودال ايلات و طوايف قزلباش كه دولت صفوي با حمايت آنان به قدرت رسيده بود. آنان تا قبل از بر روي كار آمدن شاه عباس اول داراي اختيارات و نفوذ بسيار زياد بودند و در واقع پيش از شاه عباس، ايران به مملكت قزلباشان شهرت داشت. قزلباشان املاك مردم را تصرف و به بستگان خود منتقل مي كردند و كليه ي پست ها و املاك و اموال را به طور موروثي در اختيار داشتند(نوذري، 268-267: 1380)، شاه عباس از ابتداي سلطنت به نفوذ بيش از حد قزلباشان خاتمه داد و مقامات و مناصب موروثي آنان را منسوخ كرد و طي 42 سال حكومت خود با قدرت كامل حكومت نمود.

4.روحانيان، اهميت و نفوذ روحانيان شيعه در دوره ي شاه طهماسب اول و شاه سلطان حسين به اوج خود رسيد و از پشتوانه هاي اصلي مشروعيت بخشي به حكومت محسوب مي شدند. اين دوره در واقع دوره ي ارتباط وثيق دين و دولت ( قدرت ديني و قدرت دنيايي / زعامت معنوي و زعامت سياسي ) بود. روحانيان در اين زمان مديريت برخي از مناصب و تشكيلات دولتي مانند امور قضايي، اوقاف و امور مالكيت را از آن خود داشتند(نوذري، 270: 1380).

5.طبقات متوسط، تجار به علت توسعه يافتن روابط تجارتي با ابران با اروپا از وضع خوبي برخوردار بودند. شاه عباس نيز به تجارت اهميت مي داد و به همين علت به بازرگانان براي تجارت داخلي و خارجي تسهيلات فراوان مي داد و به عنوان هاي مختلف آنان را تشويق مي نمود به گونه اي كه ايران در آن دوران از ثروتمندترين كشورها بود. تامين امنيت راه ها، ايجاد راه هاي گوناگون، ساخت كاروانسراها و آب انبارها نمونه هايي از تسهيلاتي ايجاد شده براي بازرگانان بود.مهم ترين كالاهاي صادراتي ايرانيان ابريشم، پارچه هاي زربفت و قالي، سنگ هاي كريمه مانند فيروزه، پشم شتر و توتون و خشكبار بودند( دبير سياقي و رجب نيا، 31-30: 1378).

6.كارگران و اصناف، كه در شهرها و بويژه در اصفهان فعاليت مي كردند و به محض صدور فرمان از سوي شاه مي بايستي در قصر شاهي بدون دريافت دستمزدي انجام وظيفه (بيگاري) مي كردند. اصنافي كه از معاف از بيگاري بودند بايد « خراج پادشاه » ( مخارج ملوكانه، كارگران و پيشه وراني كه در دربار خدمت مي كردند) مي پرداختند. ويژگي ها و مزاياي كارگران درباري بدين شرح بود: 1- دريافت حكم انتصاب كه در آن مبلغ مستمري وي قيد شده بود 2- مشاغل كارگري درجه بندي شده بود(كارگران درجه اول از حقوق و مزاياي بسيار بهتري برخوردار بودند 3- علاوه بر حقوق و دستمزد مشخص به آنان غذا نيز داده مي شد. 4- افزايش حقوق در پايان هر سه سال 5- دريافت انعام در برخي از موارد مانند ارائه ي ابتكار و ايجاد شاهكار بخصوص 6- دريافت جيره ( كه مي توانست مزاياي نقدي يا غير نقدي مانند جيره هاي غذايي مورد نياز براي 6 تا 7 نفر باشد) 7- پرداخت حقوق به طور سالانه و دسته جمعي انجام مي پذيرفت 8- استخدام مادام العمر و برخورداري از امنيت شغلي 9- دريافت حقوق به طور كامل در زما نپيري و بازنشستگي 10- برخورداري از بيمه (تيمار پزشك و دارو ساز دربار به طور رايگان 11- استخدام فرزندان در سنين 12 تا 15 سالگي 12- پرداخت مستمري به فرزندان در صورت مرگ پدر 13- ارائه ي مركب به كارگران در مركب شاه در هنگام سفرها( دبير سياقي و رجب نيا، 33-31: 1378).

ب- نحوه ي رسيدگي به شكايات مردم از كاركنان و مقامات دولتي

دادخواهي از دربار به دو صورت ممكن بود:

1.تقديم كردن عريضه به هنگام خروج شاه از دربار. اين راه بسيار مطمئن تر، نتيجه بخش تر و ارزان تر بود. شاه عريضه ي كسي را رد نمي كرد و يكي از ملازمان او در پست سازماني مشخصي به نام حامل عرايض مظلومين و فقرا(/ پروانچيي عجزه و مساكين) ماموريت داشت كه عريضه هايي را كه مردم ارائه مي كردند دريافت كند تا پس از ورود مجدد شاه به دربار و جلوس بر تخت سلطنت مورد رسيدگي قرار گيرد(اگرچه حكام گاهاَ با دادن رشوه به نزديكان شاه و يا در اثر روابط خصوصي با اطرافيان وي مانع از طرح يا معوق و يا بلا اجرا ماندن عرايض مي شدند).

2.راه ديگر آن بود كه مردم عريضه ي خود را به يكي از صاحب منصبان درباري بدهند تا او شكايت شاكي را به سمع شاه برساند. در اين مورد آنان مي بايست با رشوه بدهند و يا از دوستان ذي نفوذي برخوردار باشند. اگر چه صاحب منصبان دربار نيز وظيفه داشتند شكايات را دريافت و مورد رسيدگي قرار دهند. در امور شرعي صدرمملكت و در امور دنيوي ديوان بيگي يا امر ديوان مملكت صلاحيت رسيدگي كردن را داشتند. لازم به ذكذ است كه شاه اسماعيل دوم پس از رسيدن به سلطنت يك شوراي قضايي به نام ديوان عدالت تشكيل داد. شاه عباس دوم سه بار در هفته ديوان عدالت را تشكيل مي داد(نوذري، 281-280: 1380).

ج- سازمان و تشكيلات اداري عصر صفويه

مناصب ديواني(/دولتي) ودرباري:

1.عالي جاه . كه بر دو دسته بودند:

1-1-امراي سرحد، كه در خارج از دولت خانه ي شاهي خدمت مي

كردند و موظف بودند همه سال از درآمد قلمرو حكومت خود حقوق سربازان مخصوص آن محل را تامين كنند و مبلغ معيني را براي خزانه ي شاهي و وزير اعظم بفرستند. هم چنين موظف بودند در طول سال نيز به بهانه هاي مختلف پيش كش ها و هدايايي را تحت عنوان « بارخانه » براي شاه ارسال نمايند.

امراي سرحد به چهار طبقه تقسيم مي شدند: 1- ولات (/واليان). در ايران چهار والي وجود داشت كه به ترتيب عبارتتد از: والي عربستان، والي لرستان، والي گرجستان و والي كردستان.2- بيگلر بيگيـان كه ولايت ها ر ابر عهده داشتند. در زمان صفويان 13 ولايت وجود داشت. 3- خانان 4- سلطانان( عزل و نصب دو دسته ي آخر با ولات و بيگلربيگيان بود و بر نواحي موجود در ولايت ها حكومت مي كردند.

1-2- امراي دولت خانه، كه همگي در دربار شاهي خدمت مي كردند و هر يك داراي شغلي معين بودند. عناوين شغلي امراي دولت خانه عبارت بودند از: 1- اعتمادالدوله(/ وزير اعظم) 2- قورچي باشي 3- قوللر آقاسي 4- ايشيك آقاسي باشي 5- تفنگچي آقاسي . اين پنــج مقـــام را « اركان دولت قاهره » مي ناميدند(نوذري، 292-291: 1380).

منابع و ماخذ:

1.دبير سياقي سيد محمد و رجب نيا مسعود، تذكره الملوك و سازمان اداري حكومت صفوي(يا تعليقات مينورسكي بر تذكره الملوك)، تهران، انتشارات امير كبير، 1378.

2.نوذري عزت الله، تاريخ اجتماعي ايران از آغاز تا مشروطيت، تهران، انتشارات خجسته، 1380.

3.تركمان اسكندر بيگ، تاريخ عالم آراي عباسي، چاپ دوم، ج 2، تهران، انتشارات اميركبير، 1350.

سرمايه هاي مديريت شهري
اگر سخن گفتن از مشکلات تنها در همين سطح محدودنشده و بابي براي مسأله يابي و روش هاي بررسي و حل مسأله باشد. طرح مشکلات ناپسند نيست. اما اشکال اغلب بحث ها در ميان افراد و گروه هاي دست اندرکار موضوعات عمومي اين است که گامي از سطح طرح مشکلات فراتر نمي گذارند و تنها به بيان دشواري ها اتکا مي کنند. براي امتحان کافي است از هرکسي که مايل هستيد درباره مشکلات، از آب و هوا گرفته تا ابرقدرت ها و کانون هاي توطئه گر پيش رويتان قرار خواهد داد. البته برخي مشکلات هم مانند تحقق نهادهاي مردمي اداره امور محلي از قبيل انجمن ها و شوراهاي شهري و روستايي ريشه اي صدساله دارند و تکرار مجدد آنها شگفت آور نيست. در نوشته زير، سخن از مشکلات شهرداري ها رفته، اما نويسنده مايل است پس از اين مقدمه به کالبدشکافي مشکلات بپردازد و با بهره گيري از تجربه ها و نظريه هاي علمي و کارشناسي، راه حل هايي براي حل يا کاهش مشکلات ارايه کند. در اقتصاد کلاسيک، تحقق توليد هر سازماني مشروط به وجود انواع سرمايه ها مانند کار، زمين و تجهيزات شده و در آثار جديد سرمايه هاي انساني و اجتماعي نيز به سرمايه هاي پيشين اضافه شده است. شهرداري به منزله يک سازمان محلي بايد به توليد خدمات شهري براي شهروندان بپردازد. تفاوت شهرداري با ديگر سازمان هاي اداري در اين است که اين سازمان به طور غيرمستقيم منتخب شهروندان است و بايد به آنها پاسخگو باشد. از اين رو سنجش موفقيت شهرداري تنها با ملاک هاي اقتصادي امکان پذير نيست و ملاک هاي سياسي، مانند مشروعيت مديريت شهرداري و ملاک هاي اجتماعي، مانند ميزان مشارکت شهروندان در تصميم گيري ها و برنامه ريزي هاي شهري به معيارهاي اين سنجش افزوده مي شود. در نهايت بايد پذيرفت که اين شهروندان هستند که با انتخاب خود ميزان رضايت شان را از مسوولان کنوني و اميدشان را به مسوولان آينده در روز انتخابات شوراها نشان مي دهند. بنابراين ممکن است گاه يک شهرداري از نظر سنجه هاي اقتصادي وضعيت مطلوبي نداشته باشد، اما مشروعيت مردمي به گونه اي باشد که قادر به جلب نظر شهروندان براي انتخاب مجدد مسوولان خود شود. البته به طور معمول شهروندان براساس ميزان خدمتي که از يک سازمان عمومي نصيب شان مي شود (کارآمدي سازمان) قضاوت هاي خود را نسبت به آن (مشروعيت سازمان) شکل مي دهند. پس بين کارآمدي که با ملاک هاي اقتصادي قابل سنجش است و مشروعيت رابطه وجود دارد. اما مشروعيت تنها با کارآمدي قابل حصول نيست. رضايت شهروندان از عملکرد نهادهاي عمومي به عواملي مانند فرهنگ مدني جامعه، ظرفيت سازماني مشارکت پذيري، پاسخگويي و شفافيت مديريت متکي است. از اين رو براي بهبود وضعيت شهرداري هاي کشور لازم است تا از تحليل هاي تک متغيره که معمولاٌ بر مسايلي مانند تنگناهاي مالي يا محدوديت هاي قانوني تکيه دارند پرهيز کرد و کوشيد تا در مدلي جامع مشکلات آنها را فهميد، بر مبناي آنها برنامه ريزي کرد و اصلاحات موردنياز را به انجام رساند. براي درک تصوير کاملي از مشکلات شهرداري ها، مي توان اين مشکلات را در قالب کمبود هفت سرمايه نشان داد. اين هفت سرمايه عبارت اند از: سرمايه هاي سياسي، مالي، انساني، فيزيک، اجتماعي، فرهنگي و سازماني.  تعريف سرمايه هاي شهرداري 1 – سرمايه سياسي: اشاره به ميزان اقتدار سياسي اي دارد که شهرداري ها و شوراها براي پيشبرد برنامه ها و اهداف خود در سطوح حاکميت دارند. 2 – سرمايه مالي: اشاره به ميزان دارايي هاي مالي شهرداري ها دارد. 3 – سرمايه فيزيکي: اشاره به تعداد ماشين آلات، ساختمان ها و تجهيزات شهرداري ها دارد. 4 – سرمايه انساني: اشاره به تعداد نيروي انساني تحصيلکرده و آموزش ديده شهرداري ها دارد. 5 – سرمايه اجتماعي: اشاره به تعداد شبکه ها و ساختارهاي اجتماعي مانند سازمان هاي غيردولتي و انجمن هاي محلي شهري دارد که سبب تسهيل کنش هاي جمعي شهرداري ها مي شوند. 6 – سرمايه فرهنگي: اشاره به ايستارها و تمايلات شهروندان درخصوص اعتماد اجتماعي به يکديگر و سازمان هاي اداري دارد. 7 – سرمايه سازماني: اشاره به ميزان بهره مندي شهرداري ها از ساختارهاي اداري منعطف و پاسخگو دارد.   کمبودهاي سرمايه سياسي پايه وابستگي شهرداري ها به دولت مرکزي از زمان حکومت پهلوي اول گذاشته شد که همچنان بدون بازانديشي درمورد ضرورت و ابعاد آن، باقي مانده است. در وضعيت فعلي، شهرداري به منزله سازمان هاي محلي اداره کننده امور، اقتدار لازم را براي تدوين مقررات و عوارض شهري و اجراي آن ندارند و اين عامل سبب شده تا اندازه زيادي از قدرت عملکرد آنها کاسته شود. انتظار از شهرداري ها باتوجه به تشکيل شوراهاي اسلامي شهر افزايش يافته، درحالي که آنها از استقلال عمل کافي بهره مند نيستند.  کمبودهاي سرمايه مالي منابع مالي عامل مهم تعيين کننده توانايي شهرداري ها براي اداره شهرهاست. در شرايط کنوني تقريباٌ تمامي شهرداري هاي کشور با کسري بودجه براي انجام وظايف خود مواجه هستند. ميانگين مطلوب سرانه بودجه موردنياز شهرداري ها رقم 45 هزار ريال است، درحالي که براساس اطلاعات بودجه سال 1380 شهرداري ها، اين رقم 5/22 هزار ريال در شکل واقعي خود است. بنابراين شهرداري هاي کشور با کسري بودجه اي برابر با 9400000000 هزار ريال مواجه هستند. ضعف منابع درآمدي شهرداري ها امکان پرکردن شکاف درآمدي را به آنها نمي دهد و اين مهم تنها با کمک منابع عمومي يا تفويض استقلال بيشتر به شهرداري ها براي تأمين منبع مالي از طريق عوارض شهري يا جلب کمک هاي داخلي و خارجي قابل تحقق است.  کمبودهاي سرمايه فيزيکي صرف نظر از حمل و نقل درون شهري که کمک هاي دولت سبب بهبود نسبي وضعيت آن شده، ساير حوزه هاي فعاليت شهرداري مانند ايمني، بهداشت و نظافت و محيط شهري با کمبود جدي وسايل نوين و موثر مواجه است. در سال هاي اخير که شهرداري ها به ويژه در شهرهاي کوچک با مشکلات مالي درگير بوده اند، بسياري از سرمايه هاي فيزيکي آنها، مانند تجهيزات، ساختمان ها و زمين براي تأمين هزينه ها، به ويژه پرداخت حقوق و دستمزد به فروش رفته است.  کمبودهاي سرمايه اجتماعي ساختار اداري شهرداري ها مبتني بر ديدگاه کلاسيک مديريت با قدمتي طولاني و براساس روابط عمودي و تقسيم بندي هاي انعطاف ناپذير اداري است. در ساختار عمودي، سرمايه اجتماعي، يعني شبکه هاي همکاري و اعتماد شکل نمي گيرد و هزينه هاي عمل افزايش مي يابد. حجم انبوه دستورالعمل ها و بخشنامه ها و نهادهاي متعدد نظارتي و بازرسي يکي از پيامدهاي کمبود سرمايه اجتماعي درون اداري است. ساختار سنتي شهرداري از توان اين نهاد براي همکاري با نهادهاي غيردولتي و مردمي مي کاهد و اين ظرفيت مهم را در پيچ و خم هاي اداري که به اتلاف آن مي انجامد درگير مي کند.   کمبودهاي سرمايه فرهنگي مطالعات جهاني نشان داده اند که فرهنگ مدني مردم عامل مهمي در موفقيت نهادهاي عمومي و دموکراتيک به شمار مي رود. فرهنگ مدني يعني موجودبودن شبکه هاي همکاري و اعتماد ميان شهروندان و توجه و اطلاع آنها از مسايل عمومي جامعه. حتي با تدارک ساختارهاي مشارکت جوي مديريت شهري درصورت نبود يا ضعف فرهنگ مدني شهري، اين ساختارها موفقيت چنداني نخواهند داشت. برخي مطالعات انجام شده نشان مي دهد که فرهنگي مدني شهرهاي کشور در مقايسه با کشورهاي توسعه يافته وضعيت قابل قبولي ندارد. تحقيق منوچهر محسني با عنوان "بررسي آگاهي ها، نگرش ها، رفتارهاي اجتماعي و فرهنگي در شهر تهران نشان مي دهد" که روابط اجتماعي در ميان شهروندان براساس شاخص هايي مانند ارتباط با باشگاه هاي ورزشي به عنوان يک نهاد مهم مردمي براي برقراري ارتباط، انجمن هاي علمي و فرهنگي، انجمن هاي خانه و مدرسه و اتحاديه هاي صنفي از گستردگي و شمول کاري برخوردار نيست. اين پژوهش نشان دهنده ضعف نهادهاي مدني جديد در سطح شهرهاي کشور به طور عام و کلان شهر تهران به طور خاص است.   کمبودهاي سرمايه سازماني در وضعيت کنوني جهان که جهاني شدن و پيچيدگي امور از توان مديريتي هر نهاد اداري کاسته – پديده اي که "کاهش حکومت پذيري" نام دارد – راه حل مطلوب، شراکت شهرداري، جامعه مدني و بخش خصوصي در اداره جامعه شهري است. اما اين شراکت نياز به ساختارهاي منعطف و مبتني بر ويژگي هاي محلي دارد. درحال حاضر شهرداري ها موظف اند ساختارهايي داشته باشند که از سال ها پيش و مبتني بر تفکر تمرکزگرا تدوين شده و کمترين قابليت انعطاف را دارند.   کمبودهاي سرمايه انساني در انجام هر برنامه دو عامل منابع مالي و نيروي انساني اهميت زيادي دارند. هرچه سطح منابع برنامه بيشتر باشد به نيروي متخصص بيشتري نياز است. اطلاعات موجود درمورد وضعيت نيروي انساني شهرداري ها نشان مي دهد اين سازمان ها از سرمايه انساني مناسبي بهره مند نيستند. اگرچه همه ساله به منابع مالي شهرداري ها و برنامه هاي توسعه شهري، به ويژه در شهرهاي بزرگ افزوده مي شود، اما اين افزايش هماهنگ با افزايش متناسب نيروي انساني متخصص براي اجراي اين برنامه ها نيست. درحال حاضر هيچ موسسه آموزشي ويژه اي براي آموزش مشاغل تخصصي وجود ندارد. بسياري از مشاغل شهرداري ها فاقد سرفصل هاي درسي در برنامه هاي آموزشي موسسات آموزش عالي کشور هستند و از اين رو آموزش هاي آنها در اين موسسات جايي ندارد.

قطع باد دست سانسورچی بی فرهنگ كه نمی داند نبايد نوشته های علمی را سانسور كند.

قطع باد دستان سانسور چيان پرشين بلاگ

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ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS : Introduction

• Cooper chapter 1 -- Understanding ethical decision making

• Mancino, Shirley and Kenneth Kernaghan (1991).  "Approaches to ethics education."  Canadian Public Administration, 34(1), p. 184-91.

• Edmondson, Henry (1995).  "Teaching administrative ethics with help from Jefferson."  PS: Political Science & Politics, 28(2), p. 226-9.

• Menzel, Donald (1997).  "Teaching ethics and values in public administration: are we making a difference?" Public Administration Review, 57(3), p. 224-30.

10 Sep -- The public interest or general welfare

• Cooper chapter 4 -- Conflicts of responsibility: the ethical dilemma
• O'Leary, Rosemary (1994).  "The Bureaucratic Politics Paradox: The Case of Wetlands Legislation in Nevada," in Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, no. 4, vol. 4, pages 443-467.
• Anechiarico, Frank, and James Jacobs (1994).  "Visions of corruption control and the evolution of American public administration."  Public Administration Review, 54(5), p. 465-473.

17 Sep -- The profession and professionalism

• Code of Ethics of the American Society for Public Administration
• Webster, Gregory (1999).  "Serving Two Masters: Medical Practice vs Administrative Ethics."  The Journal of the American Medical Association, 282(17), p. 1678. 
• Ventriss, Curtiss (2000).  "The Relevance of Public Ethics to Administration and Policy."  In Terry Cooper (editor) Handbook of Administrative Ethics, Dekker.
• Cooper chapter 2 -- Public administration in modern and postmodern society: the context of administrative ethics.  

24 Sep -- Organization-bureaucratic norms

• Cooper chapter 3 -- Administrative responsibility: the key to administrative ethics

• Cooper chapter 6 -- Integrating ethics with organization norms and structures
• Lempert, David (1997).  "Holding accountable the powers that be: protecting our integrity and the public we serve."  Public Administration Review, 57(4).Berman, Evan, Jonathan West and Anita Cava (1994).  "Ethics management in municipal governments and large firms: exploring similarities and differences."  Administration & Society, 26(2), p. 185-203.

1 Oct -- The Constitution and law

• Richardson, William and Lloyd Nigro (1991).  "The Constitution and administrative ethics in America."  Administration & Society, 23(3), p. 275-87.
• Martinez, J. Michael (1998).  "Law versus ethics: reconciling two concepts of public service ethics."  Administration & Society, 29(6), p. 690-722.

8 Oct -- Democracy and interest group

• McAvoy, Gregory (1998).  "Partisan probing and democratic decisionmaking: rethinking the Nimby syndrome."  Policy Studies Journal, 26(2), p. 274-92.
• Dobel, Patrick (1998).  "Judging the private lives of public officials."  Administration & Society, 30(2), p. 115.
• Thomas, Craig (1998).  "Maintaining and restoring public trust in government agencies and their employees."  Administration & Society, 30(2), p. 166-93.

15 Oct -- Religion or 'God'

• Bruce, Willa and John Novinson (1999).  "Spirituality in Public Service: A Dialogue."  Public Administration Review, p. 163.
• Bowman, James and Brent Wall (1997).  "Koop as an exemplar of moral and democratic decision making: an axial approach to ethical theory."  Administration & Society, 29(3), p. 251-75.

22 Oct -- Humanity or the world

• Frederickson, H. George (1994).  "Can public officials correctly be said to have obligations to future generations?"  Public Administration Review, 54(5), p. 457-464.
• Gilman, Stuart and Carol Lewis (1996).  "Public service ethics: a global dialogue."  Public Administration Review, 56(6), p. 517-24.

• Transparency International

29 Oct -- Party, class, race, union, gender

• Tummala, Krishna (1999).  "Policy of Preference: Lessons from India, the United States, and South Africa."  Public Administration Review, 59(6), p. 495.
• Murray, Sylvester, Larry D. Terry, Charles A. Washington, and Lawrence F. Keller (1994).  "The role demands and dilemmas of minority public administrators: the Herbert thesis revisited."  Public Administration Review, 54(5), p. 409-417.    

5 Nov -- Family and friends

• Berman, Evan, Jonathan West and Maurice Richter, Jr. (2002).  "Workplace relations: friendship patterns and consequences (according to managers)."  Public Administration Review, 62(2), p. 217-30.

12 Nov -- Obligation to self?

• Josephson, Michael (1989).  "Traversing the mine field of public service ethics."  Journal of State Government, 62(5), p. 185-8.
• Rich, Wilbur (1996).  "The moral choices of garbage collectors: administrative ethics from below."  American Review of Public Administration, 26(2), p. 201-12.
• Cooper chapter 7 -- Safeguarding ethical autonomy in organizations: dealing with unethical superiors and organizations

19 Nov --

26 Nov -- No class, Thanksgiving Holiday

3 Dec -- By way of summary

• Cooper chapter 5 -- Maintaining responsible conduct in public organizations: two approaches
• Cooper conclusion: A model of responsible administration
• United States Office of Government Ethics
• State of Massachusetts -- State Ethics Commission

10 Dec -- Final exam